The short version of Phosphocreatine fits in a sentence. The long version — which is the one that helps — is below.
This page was last updated on 2026-08-01 and is reviewed periodically as new material appears.
Creatine was first identified in skeletal muscle extracts in the nineteenth century, and its role in phosphagen energy buffering was clarified in the twentieth century. The monohydrate salt became widely studied after methods for inexpensive synthesis and crystallization were developed. Modern research examines its effects on muscle energetics, recovery, and cognitive performance under specific conditions. Findings vary with population, exercise protocol, baseline creatine status, and measurement method. Studies often compare supplementation with placebo during controlled training or testing schedules.
Creatine monohydrate is a hydrated form of creatine, a nitrogen-containing compound involved in cellular energy metabolism. Its molecular formula is C4H9N3O2·H2O, with a molar mass around 149.15 g/mol. The monohydrate is the most common solid form used in research and commercial settings because it crystallizes readily and remains stable under ordinary conditions. The term monohydrate indicates one water molecule per creatine molecule in the crystal lattice. It appears as a white crystalline powder with low odor.
Analytical laboratories commonly use high-performance liquid chromatography to separate creatine from creatinine and related impurities. Ion chromatography, nuclear magnetic resonance, and titration assays can also quantify the compound. Water content is measured by Karl Fischer titration or loss on drying, because the monohydrate has a defined theoretical water fraction. Particle size, bulk density, and flowability are physical properties that affect blending and capsule filling. These measurements support quality control and help verify that a lot matches its specification.
Regulatory status varies by country. In the United States, creatine monohydrate is sold as a dietary supplement ingredient, while in the European Union it is placed on the market as a food supplement component. Some jurisdictions have established purity monographs or permitted health claims, while others treat it as a novel food or require notification. Product labels may state the amount of creatine monohydrate or the equivalent creatine content, and the two figures can differ. Independent testing programs sometimes check identity, potency, and contaminant limits.
Creatine monohydrate is stable under dry, cool conditions but can degrade when exposed to moisture and heat. In solution, it undergoes hydrolysis to creatinine, a cyclic derivative with little role in phosphagen energy transfer. The rate of conversion increases with temperature, storage time, and acidic or alkaline pH. Solid material kept in a sealed container at room temperature generally retains its composition for extended periods. Moisture uptake is a primary concern because it can accelerate breakdown and caking.
| Property | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Molecular formula | C4H9N3O2·H2O | Creatine plus one water molecule in the crystal lattice. |
| Molar mass | 149.15 g/mol | Calculated for the monohydrate form. |
| Appearance | White crystalline powder | Typical solid form; particle size can vary by processing. |
| Solubility class | Sparingly soluble in water | Dissolution improves with time, stirring, and temperature. |
| Common synonyms | Creatine hydrate; N-carbamimidoyl-N-methylglycine monohydrate | Names vary by chemical registry and supplier. |
Creatine monohydrate is one of several solid forms of creatine described in the literature. Other forms include anhydrous creatine, creatine hydrochloride, and creatine ethyl ester, each with different solubility and stability characteristics. The monohydrate is distinct from creatinine, a spontaneous breakdown compound that forms when creatine loses water and cyclizes. Commercial descriptions sometimes use synonyms such as methylguanidoacetic acid or N-(aminoiminomethyl)-N-methylglycine, which refer to the same base molecule. These names appear in chemical databases and product labels.
Creatine monohydrate is a crystalline compound formed when one molecule of creatine binds with one molecule of water. Creatine itself is a nitrogen-containing organic acid involved in cellular energy transfer, particularly in muscle and nerve tissue. The monohydrate form is the most common solid form used in research and commercial products because it is relatively stable and easy to handle. Its molecular formula is C4H9N3O2·H2O, and its molar mass is about 149.15 grams per mole.
Regulatory treatment of creatine monohydrate varies by country and intended use. In some jurisdictions it is sold as a dietary supplement, while in others it may be treated as a food ingredient or a pharmaceutical raw material. Pharmacopeial monographs, where available, define identification, assay limits, and impurity thresholds. Manufacturers often follow these monographs or internal specifications to ensure batch-to-batch consistency. Analytical method validation is important because different methods can yield different apparent purity values if sample preparation or detection conditions are not controlled.
Quality control for creatine monohydrate begins with identity confirmation and assay determination. Laboratories commonly use high-performance liquid chromatography with ultraviolet detection, often after derivatization or using a suitable column, to quantify creatine. Karl Fischer titration measures water content, which helps verify the monohydrate stoichiometry. Additional tests screen for heavy metals, residual solvents, and microbial contamination depending on the intended use. These tests establish composition and purity rather than biological effect.
Creatine is synthesized endogenously in humans, mainly in the liver, kidney, and pancreas, from the amino acids arginine, glycine, and methionine. Skeletal muscle stores much of the body's creatine, where it participates in the phosphocreatine system that buffers adenosine triphosphate during short, intense contractions. Dietary sources include meat and fish, so omnivorous diets provide additional creatine beyond endogenous production. Supplemental creatine monohydrate supplies the same molecule found in food and tissues, not a distinct drug or hormone. Research interest centers on its role in cellular energy transfer and its effects on muscle and other tissues.
Several creatine forms are sold, including monohydrate, anhydrous, hydrochloride, nitrate, citrate, and blends. Once dissolved, these forms deliver creatine, but they differ in molar mass, solubility, counterions, and water content. Creatine monohydrate has the largest body of published human data among these forms. Questions remain about whether any alternative form offers meaningful advantages in absorption, tolerability, or tissue uptake under practical conditions. The hydrate form's lower creatine content by mass is a compositional fact, not a statement about effectiveness.
Creatine monohydrate is a crystalline compound formed when one molecule of creatine associates with one molecule of water in the solid lattice. Its molecular formula is C4H11N3O3, and its molar mass is about 149.15 grams per mole. The material appears as a white, odorless powder that dissolves sparingly in water at room temperature. The monohydrate designation distinguishes it from anhydrous creatine, which lacks the bound water and has a lower molar mass. This hydrate is the most common commercial form of creatine used in nutritional and research settings.
== Further reading == Adams, Jad (2004) Hideous absinthe: a history of the devil in a bottle, London: I.B. Tauris. ISBN 1860649203 Arnold, Wilfred Niels (June 1989). "Absinthe". Scientific American. 260 (6): 112–117. Bibcode:1989SciAm.260f.112A. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0689-112. PMID 2658044. S2CID 215053033. Retrieved 18 September 2010. Blumer, D. (2002). "The Illness of Vincent van Gogh". American Journal of Psychiatry. 159 (4): 519–526. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.159.4.519. PMID 11925286. S2CID 43106568. Conrad, Barnaby (1996). Absinthe: History in a Bottle. San Francisco: Chronicle Books. ISBN 978-0811816502. Crowley, Aleister (1918). "Absinthe: The Green Goddess" (PDF). The International. XII (2). Archived from the original (PDF) on 18 September 2020. Retrieved 5 March 2016. Eadie, MJ (2009). "Absinthe, epileptic seizures and Valentin Magnan". The Journal of the Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh. 39 (1): 73–78. doi:10.1177/1478271520093901011. PMID 19831287. Guthrie, R. Winston (2010). A Taste for Absinthe. New York: Clarkson Potter. p. 176. ISBN 978-0307587534. Archived from the original on 28 February 2019. Retrieved 26 September 2012. Huisman, M.; Brug, J.; MacKenbach, J. (2007). "Absinthe is its history relevant for current public health?". International Journal of Epidemiology. 36 (4): 738–744. doi:10.1093/ije/dym068. hdl:1765/36056. PMID 17982755. Lachenmeier, Dirk W.; Nathan-Maister, David; Breaux, Theodore A.; Sohnius, Eva-Maria; Schoeberl, Kerstin; Kuballa, Thomas (2008).
== Gene == Humanin is encoded in the mitochondrial genome by the 16S ribosomal RNA gene, MT-RNR2. Multiple paralogs are found in the nuclear genome (due to nuclear mitochondrial DNA segments) and are named MTRNR2L followed by a number. It is not known whether these paralogous isoforms are completely unexpressed.
==== Police helicopter downed on Morro dos Macacos ==== The Morro dos Macacos is one of the most violent favelas in Rio de Janeiro, the community was invaded by CV on 17 October 2009, while it was still under the control of ADA, who clashed with Comando Vermelho members to contend for territory, 5 gang members were killed in the clashes from 11 to 17 October. In order to stop the clashes between the two groups, about 150 assault troops of the Special Operations Department of the Polícia Militar were dispatched for security purposes. In an attempt to prevent the intervention of the police in the ongoing feud, criminals built makeshift barricades at several key points and subsequently set them on fire. On 17 October, in the morning, the rear propeller of a Fenix helicopter patrolling above the community was shot and severely damaged by drug traffickers of Amigos dos Amigos. According to some sources, the weapons used in the attack were a bazooka and several machine guns. The helicopter crashed, killing 2 soldiers on impact, with another soldier later dying of his wounds. This attack sparked widespread retaliations by police and militias against drug cartels and civilians in the region, with massacres occurring from 17 to 25 October 2009, resulting in at least 45 deaths.
Tafamidis was shown to have a greater effect when started earlier in the disease course, when milder disease was present, as amyloid deposits in the heart were lower. Acoramidis also showed a reduction in mortality in those with TTR amyloidosis compared to placebo and a reduction in hospitalizations related to heart disease. Tafamidis is considered a first line option for the treatment of TTR amyloidosis. Ten to 20% of those with ATTR amyloidosis required pacemakers, usually due to high degree atrioventricular blocks. Observational cohort data showed that biventricular pacing preserves left ventricular function, heart failure symptom scores and mitral regurgitation incidence compared to right ventricular pacing. Ventricular arrythmia are common in those with AL and ATTR amyloidosis and are associated with a higher risk of sudden cardiac death. However, the use of implantable cardioverter defibrillators remains questionable in cardiac amyloidosis (both light chain and ATTR amyloidosis) and a mortality benefit has not been consistently shown. Outside of standard indications for implantable cardioverter defibrillators for those with heart failure, specific benefits in those with cardiac amyloidosis are not well established. Two to 5% of people with ATTR amyloidosis experience sudden cardiac death.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
Artistic Achievement – Inside Audio Achievement – The Last Guardian Best Game – Uncharted 4: A Thief's End British Game – Overcooked Debut Game – Firewatch Evolving Game – Rocket League Family – Overcooked Game Design – Inside Game Innovation – That Dragon, Cancer Mobile – Pokémon Go Multiplayer – Overwatch Music – Virginia Narrative – Inside Original Property – Inside Performer – Cissy Jones (as Delilah, Firewatch) BAFTA Special Award – Brenda Romero BAFTA Special Award - Brandon Beck and Marc Merrill of Riot Games BAFTA Ones to Watch Award – Among the Stones AMD eSports Audience Award – Clash Royale
In March 2025, German Doner Kebab (GDK) opened its first Cambridge location at the Cambridge Services on the A14 at Junction 24. In May 2025, German Doner Kebab (GDK) opened its first Norwich location at 43 St Stephens Street, and a new restaurant in Kent at Bluewater Shopping Centre.
Sumatriptan is metabolized primarily by monoamine oxidase A into indol-3-yl-acetaldehyde and then into corresponding carboxylic acid. It is further modified by UDP-glucuronosyltransferase into a conjugate with glucuronic acid. Other pathways are mediated by cytochrome P450 isoenzymes, which give an N-oxide derivative, and N-desmethyl and N,N-didesmethyl forms (the latter can be converted into the aldehyde by monoamine oxidase A). The N-desmethyl derivative can also undergo a reaction with D-cysteine.
=== Environmental impact === On an industry level, supplementing one million cows with rBST would result in the same amount of milk produced while needing 157,000 fewer cows. Farmers are, therefore, able to improve milk production with a smaller dairy population. Some studies show that rBST-treated cows reduce the greenhouse gas footprint in comparison with conventional and organic dairy operations. Cady's study showed that excretion of nitrogen and phosphorus, two major environmental pollutants arising from animal agriculture, was reduced by 9.1 and 11.8%, respectively. Carbon dioxide is recognized to be the most important anthropogenic greenhouse gas, and livestock metabolism and fossil fuel consumption are the main sources of emissions from animal agriculture.
== Models == Several theoretical models and possible mechanisms of de novo gene birth have been described. The models are generally not mutually exclusive, and it is possible that multiple mechanisms may give rise to de novo genes. An example is the type III antifreeze protein gene, which originates from an old sialic acid synthase (SAS) gene, in an Antarctic zoarcid fish.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
==== External tissue expansion ==== The successful outcome of fat-graft breast augmentation is enhanced by achieving a pre-expanded recipient site to create the breast-tissue matrix that will receive grafts of autologous adipocyte fat. The recipient site is expanded with an external vacuum tissue-expander applied upon each breast. The biological effect of negative pressure (vacuum) expansion upon soft tissues derives from the ability of soft tissues to grow when subjected to controlled, distractive, mechanical forces. (see distraction osteogenesis) The study reported the technical effectiveness of recipient-site pre-expansion. In a single-group study, 17 healthy women (aged 18–40 years) wore a brassiere-like vacuum system that applied a 20-mmHg vacuum (controlled, mechanical, distraction force) to each breast for 10–12 hours daily for 10 weeks. Pre- and post-procedure, the breast volume (size) was periodically measured; likewise, a magnetic resonance image (MRI) of the breast-tissue architecture and water density was taken during the same phase of the patient's menstrual cycle; of the 17-woman study group, 12 completed the study, and 5 withdrew, because of non-compliance with the clinical trial protocol. The breast volume (size) of all 17 women increased throughout the 10-week treatment period, the greatest increment was at week 10 (final treatment) – the average volume increase was 98+/–67 percent over the initial breast-size measures.
The muscle cells need ATP (adenosine triphosphate) as it provides energy for muscle contraction by actively transporting calcium ions into the sarcoplasmic reticulum before muscle contraction, and it is used during muscle contraction for the release of myosin heads in the sliding filament model during the cross-bridge cycle. Along with the myokinase reaction, AMP is also produced by the purine nucleotide cycle, which also runs when the ATP reservoir in muscle cells is low, and is a part of protein metabolism. In the purine nucleotide cycle, three nucleotides: AMP (adenosine monophosphate), IMP (inosine monophosphate), and S-AMP (adenylosuccinate) are converted in a circular fashion; the byproducts are fumarate (which goes on to produce ATP via oxidative phosphorylation), ammonia (from the conversion of AMP into IMP), and uric acid (from excess AMP). GSD-V patients may experience myogenic hyperuricemia (exercise-induced accelerated breakdown of purine nucleotides in skeletal muscle). To avoid health complications, GSD-V patients need to get their ATP primarily from free fatty acids (lipid metabolism) rather than protein metabolism. Over-reliance on protein metabolism can be best avoided by not depleting their ATP reservoir, such as by not pushing through the pain and by not going too fast, or too soon. Patients may present at emergency rooms with a transient contracture of the muscles and often severe pain (e.g. "clawed hand").
Calcetriol is the active form of vitamin D3 found in the kidneys. The enzyme can further oxidise calcitetrol, leading finally to calcitroic acid. Calcifediol also acts as a substrate and is oxidised to the corresponding 24-hydroxy compound, secalciferol.
== Early life and education == Namandjé Bumpus was born in Philadelphia and raised in western Massachusetts. She became interested in chemistry at a young age, even writing to the American Chemical Society while still in elementary school to ask about the kind of careers chemists can have. She earned a B.A. in Biology from Occidental College, in Los Angeles, California, in 2003. At Occidental, she was introduced to research experiences in ecology, then she ventured into pharmacology through Charles Ross Summer Research Fellowship at the University of Michigan, during which she was mentored by Dr. Richard R. Neubig. She enjoyed the experience so much that she decided to return to the University of Michigan after graduating from Occidental College in order to pursue a PhD in pharmacology. She earned her Ph.D. in pharmacology from the University of Michigan Medical School in 2007. Her thesis research, and much of her later work, examined how drugs are processed by cytochrome P450 enzymes, (CYPs) a family of heme-containing monooxygenases, that often help make drugs more soluble, aiding with drug clearance. Bumpus performed her thesis research in the laboratory of Dr. Paul F. Hollenberg, investigating how a naturally occurring mutation in CYP2B6 affects its ability to be inactivated by compounds known the inactivate the wild-type CYP2B6. She also looked into how naturally occurring variants could impact how patients cleared the antidepressant Bupropion, and the antiviral Efavirenz.
Fluoxetine is a selective serotonin re-uptake inhibitor (SSRI), which blocks re-uptake of serotonin by the presynaptic cell, which increases the amount of serotonin present at the synapse and furthermore allows it to remain there longer, providing potential for the effect of naturally released serotonin. AMPT prevents the conversion of tyrosine to L-DOPA, the precursor to dopamine; reserpine prevents dopamine storage within vesicles; and deprenyl inhibits monoamine oxidase (MAO)-B and thus increases dopamine levels.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
Creatine is the base compound, while creatine monohydrate is a solid crystalline form that contains one water molecule per creatine molecule. Once dissolved, the monohydrate dissociates and releases creatine, which can participate in cellular energy metabolism. The monohydrate is the form most commonly used in research and commercial products.
Meat and fish contain creatine, and the human body also synthesizes it from amino acids. The monohydrate form is not a natural food ingredient as such; it is a manufactured crystalline solid that provides creatine after ingestion. Food sources contribute to total body creatine stores alongside endogenous synthesis.
It means the crystal lattice includes one molecule of water for each molecule of creatine. This water is part of the solid's ordered structure, not bulk moisture. The hydrate form influences properties such as solubility, density, and shelf stability.
A sealed container at room temperature, away from moisture and direct heat, is suitable for most solid material. Keeping the lid closed limits water uptake and caking. Long-term storage in a refrigerator is not necessary if the powder remains dry.