This is a working overview of HPLC-UV, written for readers who want more than a one-paragraph summary but less than a textbook.
This page was last updated on 2025-12-17 and is reviewed periodically as new material appears.
Commercial creatine monohydrate is produced mainly by chemical synthesis rather than extraction from animal tissue. Suppliers provide a certificate of analysis listing assay, water content, and impurity limits, and some products undergo third-party testing. Verification of identity can use infrared or Raman spectroscopy alongside chromatographic methods. Storage recommendations generally call for a cool, dry place and a tightly closed container to limit moisture uptake. Open questions include how packaging, flavoring agents, and long-term storage affect the stability of finished products.
Dry creatine monohydrate is generally stable when kept sealed and protected from heat and moisture. In solution, however, creatine undergoes a slow cyclization to creatinine, a related compound with no role in phosphocreatine storage. The rate of this conversion increases with temperature and is influenced by pH. Because creatinine is a common impurity in liquid or poorly stored products, analytical testing often measures both compounds. The crystalline monohydrate is less prone to degradation than aqueous preparations, though caking can occur if moisture enters the container.
Laboratory analysis of creatine monohydrate typically uses high-performance liquid chromatography to separate creatine from creatinine and other impurities. Detection may be ultraviolet, refractive index, or mass spectrometric, depending on the laboratory's equipment and the required sensitivity. Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy can quantify the main component and identify related substances. Water content is measured by Karl Fischer titration, which is important because the monohydrate has a defined theoretical hydration level. Heavy metals, residual solvents, and microbial limits are also checked in quality control programs.
In aqueous solution, creatine monohydrate undergoes a slow conversion to creatinine, a cyclized degradation product. This reaction is pH- and temperature-dependent, and it proceeds faster in warm or alkaline conditions. Because the conversion is gradual, analytical measurements of creatine in solution must account for time and storage history. The equilibrium favors creatinine more strongly at higher temperatures, which is relevant to sample handling in laboratories and to beverage formulations. Refrigeration slows but does not entirely stop this process.
Quality assessment of creatine monohydrate typically uses high-performance liquid chromatography to separate creatine from creatinine and other impurities. Other methods include nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, titration, and infrared spectroscopy for identity confirmation. Purity is often reported as a percentage of the labeled compound on a dry basis, while moisture content is measured separately. Because different analytical methods have different selectivity, comparing purity values across sources requires attention to the method and sample preparation.
| Property | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Typical storage temperature | 15–25 °C | Protect from moisture, heat, and direct sunlight |
| Analytical method | HPLC with UV or RI detection | Separates creatine from creatinine and related impurities |
| Water content | About 12.1% w/w | Theoretical value for the monohydrate crystal |
| Degradation product | Creatinine | Formed by cyclization, especially in aqueous solution |
| Common assay specification | 98.0–102.0% | Range depends on the testing method and monograph |
Regulatory treatment of creatine monohydrate varies by country and intended use. In some jurisdictions it is sold as a dietary supplement, while in others it may be treated as a food ingredient or a pharmaceutical raw material. Pharmacopeial monographs, where available, define identification, assay limits, and impurity thresholds. Manufacturers often follow these monographs or internal specifications to ensure batch-to-batch consistency. Analytical method validation is important because different methods can yield different apparent purity values if sample preparation or detection conditions are not controlled.
Quality control for creatine monohydrate begins with identity confirmation and assay determination. Laboratories commonly use high-performance liquid chromatography with ultraviolet detection, often after derivatization or using a suitable column, to quantify creatine. Karl Fischer titration measures water content, which helps verify the monohydrate stoichiometry. Additional tests screen for heavy metals, residual solvents, and microbial contamination depending on the intended use. These tests establish composition and purity rather than biological effect.
Analytical methods for creatine monohydrate focus on identity, purity, and degradation products. High-performance liquid chromatography with ultraviolet detection is common, often at a wavelength near 210 nanometers. Titration and nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy can also quantify the parent compound. Pharmacopeial monographs specify tests for appearance, solubility, water content, and related substances, including creatinine. Purity values above 99 percent are typical for pharmaceutical-grade material, though supplement-grade products vary. Independent verification can detect label discrepancies.
Sourcing and verification of creatine monohydrate involve both manufacturing origin and third-party testing. Industrial production commonly starts with sarcosine and cyanamide, followed by crystallization to obtain the monohydrate. Some products are derived from animal sources, while others are synthesized from non-animal precursors. Certificates of analysis report assay, heavy metals, and microbial limits. Regulations differ by country: in the United States it is sold as a dietary supplement, whereas in the European Union it falls under food supplement rules.
In 2000, the chapter on Vitamin C in the North American Dietary Reference Intake was updated to give the Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) as 90 milligrams per day for adult men, 75 mg/day for adult women, and setting a tolerable upper intake level (UL) for adults of 2,000 mg/day. The table here shows RDAs for the United States and Canada for children, and for pregnant and lactating women, as well as the ULs for adults. For the European Union, the EFSA set higher recommendations for adults, and also for children: 20 mg/day for ages 1–3, 30 mg/day for ages 4–6, 45 mg/day for ages 7–10, 70 mg/day for ages 11–14, 100 mg/day for males ages 15–17, 90 mg/day for females ages 15–17. For pregnancy 100 mg/day; for lactation 155 mg/day. Cigarette smokers and people exposed to secondhand smoke have lower serum vitamin C levels than nonsmokers. The reasoning is that inhalation of smoke causes oxidative damage, depleting this antioxidant vitamin. The US Institute of Medicine estimated that smokers need 35 mg more vitamin C per day than nonsmokers, but did not formally establish a higher RDA for smokers. The US National Center for Health Statistics conducts biannual National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) to assess the health and nutritional status of adults and children in the United States. Some results are reported as What We Eat In America. The 2013–2014 survey reported that for adults ages 20 years and older, men consumed on average 83.3 mg/d and women 75.1 mg/d. This means that half the women and more than half the men are not consuming the RDA for vitamin C.
== Personal life == Townsend was born in Leytonstone, Greater London. He is the son of Troy Townsend, Head of Development for Kick It Out. He is of paternal Jamaican and maternal Greek Cypriot descent. He was brought up in Chingford, and is a lifelong Tottenham fan. He attended Rush Croft Sports College. When Townsend was 10, his half-brother Kurtis died in a car accident, aged 18. One of his cousins is Colin Kazim-Richards, also a professional footballer. Townsend was filmed singing the song "Stand By Me" by Ben E. King with the rest of the Tottenham youth players in the dressing room, which became a popular internet video. Townsend said in a December 2019 interview that he had been a problem gambler, compulsively betting online on football. He lost £46,000 on a single bet in 2012 on the night before a play-off game for Birmingham. After being caught for breaking the FA's anti-betting rules, he went to counselling. In November 2023, while on a short-term contract with Luton Town, Townsend said he was trying to improve his fitness and prolong his career. He highlighted his consumption of chicken feet, which are high in collagen as a boost to his overall fitness. Townsend worked as a pundit and co-commentator for ITV during the 2022 World Cup, Euro 2024 and 2026 World Cup. In May 2026, Townsend posted a social media video questioning why people needed to wear sunglasses to protect their eyes from sunlight but not from artificial light.
=== Biomedical === Because one of the main purposes for biomedical engineering is to mimic body parts to sustain normal body functions, due to their biocompatible properties, biopolymers are used vastly for tissue engineering, medical devices and the pharmaceutical industry. Many biopolymers can be used for regenerative medicine, tissue engineering, drug delivery, and overall medical applications due to their mechanical properties. They provide characteristics like wound healing, and catalysis of bioactivity, and non-toxicity. Compared to synthetic polymers, which can present various disadvantages like immunogenic rejection and toxicity after degradation, many biopolymers are normally better with bodily integration as they also possess more complex structures, similar to the human body. More specifically, polypeptides like collagen and silk, are biocompatible materials that are being used in ground-breaking research, as these are inexpensive and easily attainable materials. Gelatin polymer is often used on dressing wounds where it acts as an adhesive. Scaffolds and films with gelatin allow for the scaffolds to hold drugs and other nutrients that can be used to supply to a wound for healing. As collagen is one of the more popular biopolymers used in biomedical science, here are some examples of their use: Collagen based drug delivery systems: collagen films act like a barrier membrane and are used to treat tissue infections like infected corneal tissue or liver cancer. Collagen films have all been used for gene delivery carriers which can promote bone formation.
=== Molecular mimicry === Some infectious agents, like Campylobacter jejuni, bear antigens that resemble, but are not identical to, the body's self-molecules. This phenomenon, known as molecular mimicry, can lead to cross-reactivity, where the immune response to such infections inadvertently results in the production of antibodies that also react with self-antigens. An example of this is Guillain–Barré syndrome, in which antibodies generated in response to a C. jejuni infection also react with the gangliosides in the myelin sheath of peripheral nerve axons.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
Thorium is a chemical element; it has symbol Th and atomic number 90. Thorium is a weakly radioactive light silver metal which tarnishes olive grey when it is exposed to air, forming thorium dioxide; it is moderately soft, malleable, and has a high melting point. Thorium is an electropositive actinide whose chemistry is dominated by the +4 oxidation state; it is quite reactive and can ignite in air when finely divided. All known thorium isotopes are unstable. The most stable isotope, 232Th, has a half-life of 14.0 billion years, or about the age of the universe; it decays very slowly via alpha decay, starting a decay chain named the thorium series that ends at stable 208Pb. On Earth, thorium and uranium are the only elements with no stable or nearly-stable isotopes that still occur naturally in large quantities as primordial elements. Thorium is estimated to be over three times as abundant as uranium in the Earth's crust, and is chiefly refined from monazite sands as a by-product of extracting rare-earth elements. Thorium was discovered in 1828 by the Swedish chemist Jöns Jacob Berzelius during his analysis of a new mineral found by Morten Thrane Esmark in Norway on Løvøya island near Brevik in the Langesund fjord. He named it after Thor, the Norse god of thunder and war. Its first applications were developed in the late 19th century. Thorium's radioactivity was widely acknowledged during the first decades of the 20th century. In the second half of the 20th century, thorium was replaced in many uses due to concerns about its radioactive properties.
3,14-Diacetyloxymorphone and its relatives including acetylmorphone do not, however, have annual production quotas published by the DEA in the Federal Register.[Citation Needed] Like all or most of the direct morphine derivatives, halogenated derivatives of these drugs and their hydromorphone and hydromorphinol analogues were synthesized in the 1930s when both the esters and the halogenated morphine derivatives were being developed, including one given as 1,2-iodo-3,6,14-triacetyl-6ɑ-14β-hydroxydihydromorphinone in a footnote to a 1948 German medical journal article about the esters of morphine. It appears that this drug was used, labelled with Iodine 129, as a tracer in animal studies, was significantly stronger than morphine, and possibly has 1- and/or 2- fluoro, chloro, and bromo analogues.[Citation Needed] 3,6-Diacetyloxymorphone is a third acetylated oxymorphone derivative, the oxymorphone analogue of acetylmorphone and expected to be intermediate in strength betwixt the two aforementioned drugs. Another is 3-acetyloxymorphone.
Drew was born in 1904 into an African-American middle-class family in Washington, D.C. His father, Richard, was a carpet layer, and his mother, Nora Burrell, trained as a teacher. Drew and three (two sisters, one brother) of his four younger siblings (three sisters and one brother) grew up in Washington's largely middle-class and interracial Foggy Bottom neighborhood. From a young age Drew began work as a paperboy in his neighborhood, daily helping deliver over a thousand newspapers to his neighbors. Drew attended Washington's Dunbar High School which was well-known for its equality and opportunities for all, despite the racial climate at the time. From 1920 until his marriage in 1939, Drew's permanent address was in Arlington County, Virginia, although he graduated from Washington's Dunbar High School in 1922 and resided elsewhere during that period of time.
== Etymology == The word poison was first recorded in English around the year 1200, meaning "a deadly potion or substance". It derives from the Old French poison or puison (12th century; Modern French: poison), originally meaning "a drink", particularly a medicinal one. By the 14th century, the term had come to signify "a (magic) potion" or "poisonous drink". These uses trace back to the Latin word potionem (nominative: potio), meaning "a drinking" or "a drink", and more specifically "a poisonous drink", as seen in the writings of Cicero. The Latin root comes from the verb potare, meaning "to drink". The use of poison as an adjective in the form poisonous dates back to the 1520s. The practice of using poison in combination with plant names began in the 18th century. For example, the term poison oak was first recorded in 1743, and poison ivy appeared in usage by 1784. The expression poison gas was first used during World War I in 1915.
There are two suggested mechanisms behind physical hydrogel formation, the first one being the gelation of nanofibrous peptide assemblies, usually observed for oligopeptide precursors. The precursors self-assemble into fibers, tapes, tubes, or ribbons that entangle to form non-covalent cross-links. The second mechanism involves non-covalent interactions of cross-linked domains that are separated by water-soluble linkers, and this is usually observed in longer multi-domain structures. Tuning of the supramolecular interactions to produce a self-supporting network that does not precipitate, and is also able to immobilize water is vital for gel formation. Most oligopeptide hydrogels have a β-sheet structure, and assemble to form fibers, although α-helical peptides have also been reported. In a typical mechanism of gelation, oligopeptide precursors self-assemble into fibers that become elongated, and entangle to form cross-linked gels. One notable method of initiating a polymerization reaction involves the use of light as a stimulus. In this method, photoinitiators, compounds that cleave from the absorption of photons, are added to the precursor solution which will become the hydrogel. When the precursor solution is exposed to a concentrated source of light, usually ultraviolet irradiation, the photoinitiators will cleave and form free radicals, which will begin a polymerization reaction that forms crosslinks between polymer strands. This reaction will cease if the light source is removed, allowing the amount of crosslinks formed in the hydrogel to be controlled.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
== See also == International FOP Association – American organization Osteogenesis imperfecta – Group of genetic disorders resulting in fragile bones, a condition characterized by bones breaking unusually easily, caused by mutations in genes related to those responsible for FOP Progressive osseous heteroplasia – Rare genetic condition characterised by cutaneous or subcutaneous ossification FOP Friends
Obesity is a complex public health and policy problem because of its prevalence, costs, and health effects. As such, managing it requires changes in the wider societal context and effort by communities, local authorities, and governments. Public health efforts seek to understand and correct the environmental factors responsible for the increasing prevalence of obesity in the population. Solutions look at changing the factors that cause excess food energy consumption and inhibit physical activity. Efforts include federally reimbursed meal programs in schools, limiting direct junk food marketing to children, and decreasing access to sugar-sweetened beverages in schools. The World Health Organization recommends the taxing of sugary drinks. When constructing urban environments, efforts have been made to increase access to parks and to develop pedestrian routes. Efforts also exist to address the occurrence of food swamps, or areas with an overabundance of convenient or fast food options, as these has been found to be strongly predictive of obesity rates. Mass media campaigns seem to have limited effectiveness in changing behaviors that influence obesity, but may increase knowledge and awareness regarding physical activity and diet, which might lead to changes in the long term. Campaigns might also be able to reduce the amount of time spent sitting or lying down and positively affect the intention to be active physically. Nutritional labelling with energy information on menus might be able to help reducing energy intake while dining in restaurants.
The Balfour Declaration (2 November 1917) was a public statement issued by the British Government in 1917 during the First World War announcing its support for the establishment of a "national home for the Jewish people" in Palestine, then an Ottoman region with a small Jewish minority among an overwhelming Arab majority, mostly Muslim but also including Christians. The declaration was contained in a letter dated 2 November 1917 from Arthur Balfour, the British foreign secretary, to Lord Rothschild, a leader of the British Jewish community, for transmission to the Zionist Federation of Great Britain and Ireland. The text of the declaration was published in the press on 9 November 1917. Following Britain's declaration of war on the Ottoman Empire in November 1914, it had begun to consider the future of Palestine. Within two months a memorandum was circulated to the War Cabinet by a Zionist member, Herbert Samuel, proposing support of Zionist ambitions in order to gain the support of Jews in the current war. A committee was established in April 1915 by British prime minister H. H. Asquith to determine policy towards the Ottoman Empire including Palestine. Asquith, who had favoured post-war reform of the Ottoman Empire, resigned in December 1916; his replacement David Lloyd George favoured partition of the Empire. The first negotiations between the British and the Zionists took place at a conference on 7 February 1917 that included Sir Mark Sykes and the Zionist leadership.
Metalloprotein is a generic term for a protein that contains a metal ion cofactor. A large proportion of all proteins are part of this category. For instance, at least 1000 human proteins (out of ~20,000) contain zinc-binding protein domains although there may be up to 3000 human zinc metalloproteins.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
Purity testing often uses high-performance liquid chromatography to measure creatine and creatinine. Water content can be checked by Karl Fischer titration. Additional tests may cover heavy metals, residual solvents, and microbial contamination.
In solution, creatine can cyclize spontaneously to creatinine. Heat and certain pH conditions increase the rate of this conversion. Dry crystalline material is more stable because the reaction requires water.
Typical storage is in a sealed container at room temperature, away from moisture and direct heat. These conditions reduce caking and slow degradation. Liquid products require more careful handling because creatine is less stable in water.
Dry, sealed creatine monohydrate can remain stable for years, but storage conditions affect its shelf life. Moisture, heat, and repeated opening of containers can reduce quality over time.